Table 1 Evidence regarding heritability of techniques assessing vascular function

65% (95% CI 60–70%): 100 Dominican families after adjustment for age, sex, smoking, and BMI. Sacco 2009 [39]

40% had hypertension, which met inclusion criteria as a covariate for CIMT. A chromosome 14q-hypertension interaction suggested for CIMT. Sacco 2009 [39]

49% (95% CI 17–63%) adjusted for age: 762 females (Twins UK cohort), mean age 58 ± 9 years; average follow up 4.9 years; heritability of annual progression of CIMT only 8% (95% CI 0–36%). Cecelja 2018 [40]

Progression of CIMT was negatively associated with treatment for hypertension. Cecelja 2018 [40]

35% ± 8 (after adjustment; P < 0.001): 930 individuals connected in a single pedigree from an isolated population (Erasmus Rucphen Family cohort); mean age females 51, males 54 yrs. Sayed-Tabatabaei 2005 [41]

Heritability 41% unadjusted, 35% adjusted for BP (and other factors), suggesting pleiotropic genes. Sayed-Tabatabaei 2005 [41]

38% ± 6 heritability, adjusted for multiple covariates; n = 906 men, 980 women (mean age 57 years) from 586 extended families of the Framingham Offspring cohort. Fox 2003 [50]

40% of males and 36% of females had hypertension. Estimated age- and sex-adjusted heritability (c.f. the multivariable-adjusted) was 44% Fox 2003 [50]

21% ± 6 after adjustment for multiple covariates; n = 950 American Indians of the Strong Heart Study (SHS); ≈30% with diabetes and hypertension; mean ages of different communities 41 to 44 years. North 2002 [38]

Hypertension did not reach significance as a covariate for CIMT. Proportion of variance due to covariates: 46%. North 2002 [38]

36%: 74 male twin pairs, 20 MZ, aged 42 to 69, one twin migrating to Sweden; IMT values also correlated between twin pairs (rMZ = 0.64, P = 0.002; rDZ = 0.46, P = 0.0006). Jartti 2002 [51]

IMT correlated with S (r = 0.24, P = 0.004). Jartti 2002 [51]

26% ± 8 (after adjustment, P < 0.001) for PWV: n = 930; from an isolated population (Erasmus Rucphen Family); mean age females 51, males 54 yrs. Sayed-Tabatabaei 2005 [41]

Heritability 36% unadjusted, 26% adjusted for BP (and other factors), suggesting pleiotropic genes. Sayed-Tabatabaei 2005 [41]

40% ± 9 among 1480 participants representing 817 pedigrees in the Framingham Study offspring cohort. Mean age 60 ± 10 years. Variance components linkage analysis identified chromosomes 2, 7, 13, and 15 for PWV. Mitchell 2005 [52]

Analysed PWV separately from BP, and used additional linkage sample: the results mapped to separate genomic locations with credible candidate genes, suggesting distinct genetic determinants. Mitchell 2005 [52]

38% (95% CI 16–63%) adjusted: 762 females (Twins UK cohort), mean age 58 ± 9 years; average follow up 4.9 years; heritability of annual progression of PWV 55% (31–64%). Cecelja 2018 [40]

Demonstrate association between progression in PWV and longitudinal BP, though not directionality. Cecelja 2018 [40]

43% (95% CI 30–54%) / 53% (95% CI 42–62%) for radial / foot PWV respectively. No ethnicity or gender differences in estimates. 41% black; 49% male; aged 12–30 (mean 17.7 ± 3.3) years; n = 388, twins: 89 pairs MZ, 105 pairs DZ. Ge 2007 Georgia Cardiovascular Twin Study [53]

Overlap with genes influencing DBP. Ge 2007 [53]

No published heritability estimates identified; though race, sex, and age influence EndoPAT results. Mulukutla 2010; Schnabel, 2011 [54, 55]

N/A

14%: n = 883, 53% women; mean age 61; adjusting for stepwise model covariates, estimated heritability of brachial artery baseline diameter was 33 ± 7%, and FMD% was 14 ± 6%, with age-gender interaction (P = 0.01). Benjamin 2004 [56]

Concluded SBP is an important correlate of FMD; but not directionality or whether associated through a third factor. Benjamin 2004 [56]

24%: 74 male twin pairs, 20 MZ, aged 42–69, one twin migrating to Sweden; FMD did not correlate between twins, (rMZ = 0.23, P = 0.34; rDZ = 0.11, P = 0.43), suggesting modest genetic component; h2 = 2 × (0.23 − 0.11) = 0.24. Jartti 2002 [51]

FMD correlated with SBP: r =  − 0.21 (P = 0.01), and DBP: r =  − 0.17 (P = 0.04). Jartti 2002 [51]

39% (95% CI 18–56%): 94 male twin pairs, mean age 55 ± 2.8 years; adjusted for age, cholesterol, DBP, and body mass index. Zhao 2007 [57]

Unadjusted correlation of FMD and SBP: r = − 0.05 (P = 0.15) and DBP: r = − 0.08 (P = 0.08), P values corrected using generalized estimating equation. Zhao 2007 [57]